The Great Fire of London: A City Destroyed

London 1666

In 1666, London was the third-largest city in the world, home to approximately 450,000 people. A quarter of its inhabitants were crammed inside the old mediaeval perimeter, bounded on the south by the mighty river Thames. Massive defensive walls on the other three sides of the city surrounded a labyrinth of unregulated, mostly timber structures, crowded slums, and narrow alleyways.

In the city's narrow streets, land was at a premium, with the ground floor area subject to taxation. To maximise internal space, each building level projected further out over the street until they were almost touching. In 1661, the King issued a proclamation banning overhanging structures, but city authorities ignored it. In 1665, a second proclamation warned explicitly of the increased fire risk. It recommended prison for offending builders and demolition of structures that didn’t conform. However, once again, city authorities defied the monarch. This would prove to be the city’s undoing.

Ignition

In the early hours of September 2nd 1666, the fire began in a bakery on Pudding Lane. The owner, Thomas Farriner, had gone to bed without properly extinguishing the hearth fire. It is believed that a spark ignited flammable materials in the bakery. Initially, the blaze was contained to a couple of shops and houses on Pudding Lane. But, thanks to strong easterly winds and the proximity of the timber-framed buildings, it quickly grew out of control.

The city was not just a wooden city; it was a wooden city that enjoyed a really warm summer. So, every piece of wood within that city was dry and ready for burning.

Rebecca Rideal, historian, history podcaster, and author of 1666: Plague, War, and Hellfire

Authorities had a chance to slow the fire's progress in its early stages but failed to do so. The Lord Mayor of London, Sir Thomas Bloodworth, underestimated the severity of the conflagration. He refused to let soldiers tear down buildings on either side of the blaze, which may have slowed its spread.

One man who did take charge was the King. During the afternoon of September 2nd, Charles II travelled down the Thames by boat to survey the scene for himself. He was appalled to see that houses were still not being demolished and that the mayor was not directing operations. Overstepping his authority, the King assumed command. His first order was to direct his troops to pull down buildings west of the fire. But while this might have helped hours ago, the chance to regain control had already passed.

Destruction

The fire raged for four days, destroying approximately 13,200 houses, 87 parish churches, numerous landmarks, and perhaps most notably, St. Paul's Cathedral, which became a symbol of the disaster. The inferno left an estimated 70,000 to 80,000 people homeless, though remarkably, only six verified deaths were recorded. Some historians suggest that this low death toll may be inaccurate, as the intense heat could have completely consumed many victims, leaving no trace. Furthermore, the deaths of poor and middle-class people may not have been recorded. 

By Wednesday, September 5th, 1666, the flames finally began to subside. The large-scale intentional demolition of buildings had created effective firebreaks, and the inferno had consumed all available fuel within reach. As the last embers cooled, London lay in smouldering ruins—the Great Fire had burned itself out.

Rebuilding the Capital

With thousands of Londoners homeless, living in tents in the fields that surrounded the razed city, talk turned to rebuilding the capital. Within days, Charles II received hundreds of plans to remodel London. Among them were proposals from Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke, two prominent architects of the time. Though grand plans for wide boulevards and a more organised street layout were proposed, financial constraints led to a more conservative rebuilding effort. The new buildings were constructed primarily of brick and stone, significantly reducing the risk of future fires.

Lots of people tried to promote hope - that the city that would emerge, this stone phoenix rising from the ashes, would be greater than anything that had been seen before.

Rebecca Rideal, historian, history podcaster, and author of 1666: Plague, War, and Hellfire

Wren's most notable contribution was the redesign of St. Paul's Cathedral, completed in 1710. With its intricate stonework and instantly recognisable dome, St. Paul’s Cathedral is an architectural masterpiece and a fitting tribute to the city. Wren and Hooke also designed the Monument to the Great Fire of London, erected near Pudding Lane. This 202-foot column serves as a lasting memorial to the disaster and the city's recovery.

Impact

While the fire that ravaged the city of London is rightfully seen as a disaster, many positive changes emerged as a result of it. Significant improvements in building regulations and urban planning were made to prevent such a disaster from occurring again. The Rebuilding of London Act of 1666 mandated that new buildings be constructed with fire-resistant materials such as brick and stone, and established building regulations that influenced urban development for centuries. 

It also cleared the way for a more modern city with better sanitation and record-keeping. The first insurance companies sprang up from the devastation, and the fire-fighting teams that followed would eventually grow to form the London Fire Brigade.

Today, the Great Fire remains a defining moment in London's rich history, a testament to the city's resilience in rising from the ashes and rebuilding stronger than before.